Center for Autism Spectrum Disorders Birmingham Mi Review

Introduction

Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined emotional intelligence as a subset of social intelligence that involves the "ability to monitor one'south ain and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate amidst them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and deportment" (p. 189). Distinct from cognitive intelligence, an accumulating literature base of operations suggests that EI may contribute equally to psychological, academic, professional, and social functioning (Brackett et al., 2019). For example, EI abilities are associated with better prosocial behaviors, teamwork, empathy, and achievement in both educational (Mayer et al., 2008; Brackett et al., 2016) and workplace settings (Côté, 2014; Brackett, 2019). This burgeoning research area has contributed to a growing recognition among policy-makers, educators and employers, that i) cognitive intelligence is not sufficient for attainment of success in critical areas of life functioning, and that 2) educational programs and public policies should aim to foster neglected skillsets related to EI to produce a happier, healthier, and more productive lodge (Heckman and Kautz, 2012).

20 years of research has shown that EI tin can exist explicitly taught via "social and emotional learning" interventions in schoolhouse settings. SEL is a broad term encompassing interventions, school practices, and polices aimed at helping students and teachers learn skills and attitudes that promote personal development, interpersonal skills, upstanding behavior, and responsible decision-making (Elias et al., 2015).

Contempo meta-analyses examining long-term impacts of SEL have observed that compared to controls, children who participated in SEL programs demonstrated meaning gains in social and emotional skills, attitudes, behavior and bookish operation, well-being, and higher likelihood of high school graduation (Durlak et al., 2011; Taylor et al., 2017). EI interventions are typically targeted towards the general population, merely there has been limited consideration of how they can exist adapted for special populations such every bit autism spectrum disorder (ASD). ASD is associated with significant difficulties with the processing and regulation of emotions (Gaigg, 2012); yet, the extent to which EI difficulties contribute to adverse life outcomes in this population has not been sufficiently explored. In this paper, nosotros review literature relevant to our perspective that EI domains map closely to established areas of difficulty in ASD and frame ASD symptoms through the lens of EI theory. As very few studies take direct examined EI in ASD, we conducted this review informally by first addressing the cardinal components of the EI construct (Mayer et al., 2016) and then conducting targeted searches pairing the search terms "autism" or "ASD" with select search terms relevant to emotional competencies relevant to the EI construct. Based on this review, we consider novel approaches for supporting emotional development in schoolhouse contexts.

The Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence: The Link to Autism Spectrum Disorder

In 1997, Mayer and Salovey, (1997) revised their original (Salovey and Mayer, 1990) definition of EI to more specifically define the abilities that comprise this construct. They wrote:

Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and limited emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional cognition; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth (p. 10).

The relationships amongst the four components of EI may be best conceptualized in terms of hierarchical factor structures, such that the core abilities are second-order factors that correlate with one another and load onto the single higher-order factor of general EI (Joseph & Newman, 2010; Legree et al., 2014; MacCann et al., 2014) (run across Figure 1A).

FIGURE 1. The power model of EI practical to ASD. (A) displays each co-operative of the power model. (B) displays EI deficits in ASD every bit they correspond to each branch. NVC, nonverbal cues, which could include torso language, facial expressions, prosody, etc.

The stardom between cerebral intelligence and EI may exist especially relevant in ASD, a population with notably lower EI compared to neurotypical peers, despite comparable cerebral intelligence (Brady et al., 2014). ASD is associated with a particular set up of emotional challenges that represent to facets of traditional models of EI, such as difficulty perceiving and understanding one's own and others' emotions, expressing emotions nonverbally, and effectively regulating negative emotions (Harms et al., 2010; Mazefsky et al., 2013; Trevisan et al., 2018) (come across Effigy 1; Supplemental Material).

Emotional Intelligence Difficulties in Autism Spectrum Disorder

As shown in Figure 1 and the Supplemental Textile, in that location is substantial research prove to propose EI deficits in ASD. Given the role of EI in successful life functioning and academic success, a more than nuanced description of how EI difficulties and their downstream consequences is warranted.

Perceiving Emotions

Perception of One's Own Emotions

Alexithymia is a condition characterized by difficulties identifying and describing one's emotions (Nemiah et al., 1976). Compared to neurotypical peers, individuals with ASD score much higher on continuous measures of alexithymia (Hill et al., 2004; Griffin et al., 2016; Trevisan et al., 2016), even when matched on verbal and nonverbal intelligence (Trevisan et al., 2016). These difficulties in perceiving and reflecting on i's emotions hinder the effectiveness of psychotherapy, the power to remediate life bug, and ultimately, personal growth (Sifneos, 1973).

Perception of Other'south Nonverbal Emotional Cues

Bones emotion recognition is the foundation for more sophisticated emotional and social agreement and is necessary for responding empathetically to the emotional signals of others (Izard et al., 2001; Jones et al., 2011). Findings across studies on emotion recognition abilities in ASD are mixed and appear to exist field of study to task demands and participant characteristics (Harms et al., 2010). Still, individuals with ASD more often than not perform worse than comparison groups on tasks that require recognition of emotion from facial expressions (Uljarevic and Hamilton, 2013; Lozier et al., 2014), prosody (e.g., tone, rhythm), gestures, and body language (Baker et al., 2010; Stewart et al., 2013; Fridenson-Hayo et al., 2016). While some studies find no show of emotion recognition deficits in such tasks (e.yard., Loveland et al., 1997; Blackness et al., 2019), biological differences in eye-tracking, electrophysiological response, and encephalon imaging, suggest atypical emotion processing fifty-fifty when task performance is intact (Harms et al., 2010). Trevisan and Birmingham (2016) establish that emotion recognition abilities in ASD are associated with higher social competence and less severe ASD symptoms, highlighting the importance of emotion recognition for successful adaptive and interpersonal functioning.

Differentiation of Authentic Versus Deceptive Facial Expressions

"…facial expressions are not only the physiological consequences of an internal emotional state (i.e., spontaneous productions), just tin can as well be [consciously controlled social displays] that are monitored and manipulated in order to meet external (social) demands (i.east., voluntary displays)." (Gordon et al., 2014, p. 2486). Individuals with ASD may have difficulties understanding more nuanced displays of emotion, interpreting deceptive facial expressions, and agreement the social reasons prompting deceptive facial expressions, even if they possess the basic ability to label facial expressions with the correct emotional state (Dennis et al., 2000; Rutherford and McIntosh, 2007).

Facial Expression Production

Despite existence less researched than the power to read others' facial expressions, the ability to accurately produce facial expressions, and integrate gesture during speech, may be just equally important for successful social interactions. The facial expressions of those with ASD are rated as more awkward or unusual in appearance in comparison to neurotypical control groups (Faso et al., 2015) and observers are therefore less likely to infer their intended emotional significant (Brewer et al., 2016). Overall, people with ASD express facial expressions with less clarity, accurateness, and their facial expressions are less likely to lucifer the social context (Trevisan et al., 2018). People with ASD are also less likely to synchronously integrate gesture into spoken communication (de Marchena and Eigsti, 2010). These differences in nonverbal communication detract from fluency and social-emotional reciprocity during social interactions.

Using Emotions

Generating Emotions to Relate to Others

While this co-operative of the Ability Model of EI may be relatively under-researched in ASD, generating emotions as a means to chronicle to others' experiences may be cardinal to high-level social and emotional competencies. One mechanism relevant to simulating others' emotions is the "mirror neuron system" (MNS), which is accordingly named due to its' activation both when seeing and doing an action (Iacoboni, 2009). MNS impairment has been hypothesized to be key to difficulties relating to others' emotional experiences in ASD (Williams et al., 2001). As the automatic tendency to imitate others' emotions in the self has been associated with the ability to sympathise others' emotions (Neal and Chartrand, 2011), this basic physiological arrears in simulating emotions in the cocky may detract from higher-order cerebral processes similar empathy.

Understanding Emotions

Conceptualizing and Describing Complex and Mixed Emotions

Laboratory research on emotions most often discerns the "basic emotions," typically comprising universal emotions similar fear, anger, sadness, cloy, surprise and joy (Ekman, 2017). Autistic people with normal exact abilities can discuss their basic emotional experiences with relative ease, but have trouble discussing more complex emotions in themselves and others (Capps et al., 1992; Capps et al., 1995; Kasari et al., 2001). This relatively less nuanced agreement of emotions may limit the ability of individuals with ASD to engage with their own and others' emotions in order to remediate personal emotional problems and to facilitate social interactions and relationships.

Appraisal of Situations That Elicit Emotions; Antecedents and Consequences

ASD is characterized by an impaired "Theory of Mind" (ToM), characterized by difficulties attributing mental states such as beliefs, intents, desires and emotions to others (Businesswoman-Cohen, 1997; Baron-Cohen, 2005). ToM difficulties impair the power to empathise the perspectives and feelings of others based on their external causes and situational contexts (Salomone et al., 2019). Losh and Capps (2006) reported that the emotional accounts of children with ASD are less likely to be explained in causal-explanatory frames of reference. Impoverished understanding of emotional antecedents and consequences may exist fundamental to other aspects of EI such as the ability to regulate one's own emotions. For instance, emotional meltdowns or outbursts in ASD are due in role to lack of sensation of the antecedents leading to negative emotions, and lack of insight regarding subsequent consequences (Mazefsky and White, 2014).

Managing Emotions

Emotion Regulation

Emotion regulation has been divers as the automatic or intentional modification of a person's emotional country that promotes adaptive or goal-directed beliefs (Thompson, 1994). Functionally, emotion regulation is idea to be critical for effective management of personal distress and interpersonal disharmonize, and more than broadly for psychological well-beingness and mental health (Dulewicz et al., 2003; James et al., 2012). Emotion dysregulation is of significant practical concern to parents, clinicians, and educators working with children with ASD (Mazefsky et al., 2013), as emotion dysregulation in this population may result in irritability, emotional outbursts, aggression, self-injury, impulsivity, and anxiety (Lecavalier, 2006; Mazefsky et al., 2013; Mazefsky and White, 2014; Charlton et al., 2019).

Emotion Regulation Strategies

Emotion regulation is difficult to empirically measure out in the lab, but observational studies have shown that children with ASD use less effective and less adaptive coping strategies compared to their neurotypical peers when confronted with frustrating situations (Konstantareas and Stewart, 2006; Jahromi et al., 2012). Children with ASD utilize more avoidance and venting strategies to regulate frustration and are less likely to use constructive strategies such as goal-directed solutions or seeking assist from an adult (Jahromi et al., 2013). Effective emotion regulation strategies are needed to minimize the negative emotional bear on of adverse events and to reframe difficult situations into constructive learning opportunities (Gross and John, 2003; Mandell, 2008; Mazefsky et al., 2013; Charlton et al., 2019).

Managing Others' Emotions

While inquiry on managing others' emotions in ASD has received relatively lilliputian empirical attending to our knowledge, there are several considerations worth making. An obvious only relevant betoken is that defective awareness and understanding of emotional signals in the first place would make it impossible to answer to and effectively manage others' emotions (Gaigg, 2012). All the same, even when an individual with ASD detects and correctly interprets others' emotions, they may all the same lack the social competencies to reply in an emotionally intelligent way. For example, children with ASD are less responsive to the emotional displays of others compared to their typically developing peers, even when they are apparently aware of others' emotional displays (Yirmiya et al., 1992; Loveland et al., 1994; Bacon et al., 1998; Corona et al., 1998). Difficulty managing and responding to others' emotions would make information technology challenging to reconcile interpersonal conflict, to respond to others compassionately, and to help others cope with emotional distress.

Implications for School-Based Social and Emotional Learning Programming and Special Education

Understanding emotional difficulties in ASD in the context of EI offers a novel framework for conceptualizing potentially feasible intervention strategies. Some prior piece of work has shown promise in teaching children with ASD skills relevant to EI including understanding of their ain and others' emotions, emotional trouble solving, and emotion regulation skills in school settings (Wong et al., 2010). Additionally, systematic reviews of bear witness-based educational interventions for children with ASD have been conducted and translated into accessible learning modules that can be utilized by educators to teach social-emotional competencies among other skills, using a variety of approaches including peer-mediated education, naturalistic intervention, structured play groups, and developed-directed social skills training (Wong et al., 2015; Sam et al., 2020). However, well-nigh special pedagogy interventions for children with ASD focus either on educational development or on social skill development. These interventions may cover some aspects of social problem solving and understanding emotions in others but neglect several key EI skills. We are not suggesting that EI difficulties are necessarily the most pressing concerns in all children with ASD, or that SEL interventions should replace existing special education interventions. Rather, interventions that focus on development of EI may complement other interventions past targeting skillsets that do not receive plenty attending. In the following sections, we depict a detail set of behavioral and biophysiological interventions that target greater understanding and regulation of emotions in the self, almost relevant to EI.

Biosocial Feedback

Buck and Powers (2013) suggest that when children express emotions verbally and nonverbally, the ways in which caregivers respond to those emotions serve every bit educational opportunities in a process called "biosocial feedback." Biosocial feedback helps children empathize what emotions they are experiencing, the events that lead to negative emotions, and strategies for regulating those emotions. For example, if a young child expresses frustration, a caregiver or educator may respond in such a way that helps the child understand what emotion he is experiencing, why he is experiencing it, and offering strategies on how to regulate that specific emotion. For children who have a disposition toward suppressing emotional expression or practice not limited emotions clearly, alexithymia can develop equally a upshot of compromised biosocial feedback. This may be a particular concern for children with ASD given confusing and macerated emotion expression patterns (Snow et al., 1987; Dawson et al., 1990; Capps et al., 1993; Trevisan et al., 2018). School-based interventions that capitalize on teachable moments by encouraging verbal and nonverbal emotional expression and providing educational feedback about their emotional expression may be effective at increasing EI over time.

Biofeedback

Other interventions aim to promote sensation of emotional arousal with the utilize of wearable devices and applications (due east.yard., Kushki et al., 2015; Ness et al., 2019). Such devices warn users and their caregivers when they are experiencing heightened emotional arousal, as measured past significant increases in heartrate or other physiological measures of arousal. An important aspect of the emotion regulation process is to first have awareness that an emotion is arising in the self before i can curb or regulate that emotion trajectory. These devices serve as an "emotional prosthetic" for children with poor emotional awareness and may potentially improve subjective awareness of one'southward emotional states over fourth dimension through repeated learning opportunities. They tin can also help caregivers and educators empathise when the child in their care is overwhelmed or upset, even when the kid is not clearly expressing those emotions. Inquiry is needed to evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of such strategies in schoolhouse-based settings.

Mindfulness and Meditation

Western therapeutic practices take increasingly drawn from contemplative practices such as Mindfulness and Meditation into interventions such as "Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction" (MBSR) and "Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy" (MBCT). Mindfulness has been defined every bit, "The sensation that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of feel moment by moment" (Kabat-Zinn, 2003), p. 145). It incorporates formal practices such equally meditation that are undertaken for specific periods of time, but also encourages living "mindfully," by maintaining awareness of one's ongoing stream of consciousness and evolving emotional and physical feelings throughout one's daily life. Such interventions are constructive at improving self-reported and objective measures of emotional awareness over time (Bornemann et al., 2015; Bornemann and Singer, 2017). These interventions are increasingly used in the ASD community and are efficacious in treating depression and feet in adults with ASD (Spek et al., 2013), in minimizing aggressive behavior in physically aggressive adolescents with ASD (Singh et al., 2011), and for decreasing stress and improving other wellness outcomes in parents of children with ASD who experience high degrees of parental stress (Ferraioli and Harris, 2013). Mindfulness and meditative practices have already been successfully implemented into SEL curricula (Lawlor, 2016; Lemberger-Truelove et al., 2018), and future enquiry is needed to examine the effectiveness of school-based mindfulness programs for children with ASD.

RULER

One arroyo to teaching EI in schools is RULER (www.rulerapproach.org), adult at the Yale Centre for Emotional Intelligence. RULER's original design was a Tier i or universal arroyo to SEL for TD children capable of learning social and emotional skills via observational learning and reciprocity in everyday conversation in both social and bookish contexts. Adaptations for children with ASD became necessary as the arroyo was adopted past many large districts and private schools serving children with ASD. The near significant adaptation was a greater focus on explicit instruction of EI skills to address the difficulties of children with ASD in learning SEL skills through incidental learning (Erdődi et al., 2013).

The Mood Meter is i RULER tool designed to help individuals identity and label emotions. Based on the circumplex model of emotion, information technology is a visual delineation of ii components of emotions: pleasantness and energy (Russell, 1980). The x-centrality describes the degree of pleasantness we feel, ranging from unpleasant to pleasant. The y-axis represents our energy, ranging from low to high. The axes cantankerous to create 4 colored quadrants each depicting a range of emotions. For children with ASD, including those who are non-verbal, teachers have used Mayer Johnson pic symbols depicting various facial expressions on their augmentative communication devices to give students a "voice" to communicate their emotions in each area of the mood meter: happy, sad, at-home, angry, etc. Teachers also use mirrors and photographs to indicate out specific details on faces and in bodies that stand for distinct emotions. The apply of these visual supports for the Mood Meter more effectively supports learning well-nigh emotions for children with ASD.

Given the claiming of children with ASD to apply emotion knowledge across contexts, RULER supports educators who work with children with ASD to break down the teaching of emotion regulation. Instead of brainstorming multiple strategies simultaneously, teachers can accost one strategy at a time and provide multiple opportunities for children to practise and receive positive reinforcement on its application beyond varied roleplay situations. The greater the structure and predictability in their learning of SEL skills the meliorate able children with ASD tend to exist at learning and applying the skills. Most school-based research has focused on teaching children with ASD social skills (Watkins et al., 2017). Additional study is needed to unpack best practices for implementing classroom based SEL programs that focus specifically on developing EI skills in children with ASD.

Give-and-take

Many individuals with ASD face a unique set of emotional challenges that contribute to high rates of mood disorders and poorer interpersonal function in social, academic, and employment settings. In this paper, we argued that the ability model of EI is a useful framework for conceptualizing the emotional symptoms of ASD. Information technology is not our position that EI difficulties are the only or virtually pressing claiming faced past children with ASD in school settings; some children with ASD may not present with whatever EI difficulties at all (McCrimmon et al., 2016). Moreover, many children with ASD have co-occurring disorders such equally intellectual inability or language impairment which may modify the presentation of EI difficulties. These differences and variations in cognitive ability among children with ASD may require boosted refinements in intervention implementation. Another important question for hereafter research is to understand the outset-personal perspectives of individuals with ASD on the topic of EI regarding if, and in what ways, EI interventions should be taught in schools. One outset-personal give-and-take of school inclusivity emphasized the utility of capitalizing on the special interests of students with ASD, and so perhaps the content of EI lessons could be adapted and individualized based on the special interests of a particular pupil with ASD to increase motivation and appointment with the material (Boven, 2018). Other first-personal perspectives emphasize that autistic individuals often feel intense emotional feelings and empathy toward other human and non-man beings (Davidson and Smith, 2009), so perhaps those feelings tin can be utilized as a starting bespeak to discuss emotionally intelligent strategies to empathise and regulate emotions in those scenarios to see various interpersonal goals.

Nosotros hope this paper will encourage researchers, clinicians, and educators to employ the ability model of EI to deconstruct, organize, and meliorate sympathise the emotional challenges faced in ASD. Future ASD research may benefit from drawing on the larger body of EI research in the general population to consider, for case, how SEL initiatives in K-12 educational settings may be modified for students with ASD.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Fabric, farther inquiries can exist directed to the corresponding writer.

Writer Contributions

DT wrote the majority of the paper. EA reviewed and edited earlier drafts and helped design the effigy. MB wrote specific sections and reviewed and edited earlier drafts. JM helped conceptualize the ideas in the newspaper and reviewed and edited earlier drafts.

Funding

This work was supported by the Hilibrand Foundation and the Hartwell Foundation.

Disharmonize of Interest

JM consults with Customer Value Partners, Bridgebio, and BlackThorn Therapeutics, has received inquiry funding from Janssen Research and Evolution, and receives royalties from Guilford Press, Lambert, and Springer. MB does not receive royalties from RULER and has a conflict of interest direction plan in place with Yale University to ensure that his involvement in the evolution of RULER does not compromise research endeavors.

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absenteeism of whatever commercial or financial relationships that could be construed every bit a potential disharmonize of interest.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Nikki Elbertson and Bonnie Chocolate-brown for their thoughtful comments that helped shape this manuscript.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be institute online at: https://world wide web.frontiersin.org/manufactures/10.3389/feduc.2021.639736/full#supplementary-cloth.

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